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| Ancient Mesopotamia |
|---|
|
| Euphrates • Tigris |
| Cities / Empires |
| Sumer: Eridu • Kish • Uruk • Ur • Lagash • Nippur • Girsu |
| Elam: Susa |
| Akkadian Empire: Akkad • Mari |
| Amorites: Isin • Larsa |
| Babylonia: Babylon • Chaldea |
| Hittites • Kassites • Hurrians/Mitanni |
| Assyria: Assur • Nimrud • Dur-Sharrukin • Nineveh |
| Chronology |
| History of Mesopotamia |
| History of Sumer • Kings of Sumer |
| Kings of Assyria |
| Kings of Babylon |
| Mythology |
| Enûma Elish • Gilgamesh |
| Assyro-Babylonian religion |
| Language |
| Sumerian • Elamite |
| Akkadian • Aramaic |
| Hurrian • Hittite |
The history of Sumer, taken to include the prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk periods, spans the 5th to 3rd millennia BC, ending with the downfall of the Third Dynasty of Ur around 2004 BC, followed by a transition period of Amorite states before the rise of Babylonia in the 18th century BC.
The first settlement in southern Mesopotamia was Eridu. The Sumerians claimed that their civilization had been brought, fully formed, to the city of Eridu by their god Enki or by his advisor (or Abgallu from Ab=water, Gal=great, Lu=man), Adapa U-an (the Oannes of Berossus). The first people at Eridu brought with them the Samarran culture from northern Mesopotamia and are identified with the Ubaid period, but it is not known whether or not these were Sumerians (associated later with the Uruk period).Some versions of Sumerian myths may also suggest Dilmun as a possible place of origin, although they may simply be refering to an idealized paradise. Most Sumerian mythology simply refers to the Mesopotamian region, suggesting their origins were there.
The Sumerian king list is an ancient text in the Sumerian language listing kings of Sumer from Sumerian and foreign dynasties. Much of the earlier dynasties are likely mythical, and only a few of the early names have been authenticated through archaeology. The best-known dynasty, that of Lagash, is not listed there at all.
(All date ranges are approximate)
Permanent year-round urban settlement was probably prompted by intensive agricultural practices and the work required in maintaining the irrigation canals, and the surplus food this economy produced allowed the population to settle in one place, rather than follow herds or forage for food.
The centres of Eridu and Uruk, two of the earliest cities, had successively elaborated large temple complexes built of mudbrick. Developing as small shrines with the earliest settlements, by the Early Dynastic I period, they had become the most imposing structures in their respective cities, each dedicated to its own respective god. From south to north, the principal temple-cities, and the gods they served, were
Historians until recently agreed that before 3000 BC the political life of the city was headed by a priest-king (ensi) and based around these temples, but some more recent authors have asserted that the cities had secular rulers from the earliest times.[citation needed]
The development of a sophisticated system of administration led to the invention of writing of numbers about 3500 BC and logographic writing about 3000 BC, which developed into syllabic writing by about 2600 BC.
In the possibly mythical pre-dynastic period, the Sumerian king list portrays the passage of power from Eridu to Shuruppak in the south, until a flood occurred, from where it relocated to the northern city of Kish at the start of the Early Dynastic period. It would then pass back to Uruk, Ur and Lagash until the Akkadians overtook the area.
Archaeologists have confirmed the presence of a widespread layer of riverine silt deposits, shortly after the Piora oscillation, interrupting the sequence of settlement, that left a few feet of yellow sediment in the cities of Shuruppak and Uruk and extended as far north as Kish. The polychrome pottery characteristic of the Jemdet Nasr period (3000-2900 BC) was replaced with Early Dynastic I artifacts.
The Early Dynastic Period began after a cultural break with the preceding Jemdet Nasr Period that has been radio-carbon dated to about 2900 BC at the beginning of the Early Dynastic I Period.
Archaeologists divide the Early Dynastic Period into four sub-periods:
No inscriptions have yet been found verifying any names of kings that can be associated with the Early Dynastic I period. The ED I period is distinguished from the ED II period by the narrow cylinder seals of the ED I period and the longer wider ED II seals engraved with banquet scenes or animal-contest scenes. Georges Roux, Ancient Iraq, page 129
The Early Dynastic II period is when Gilgamesh, the famous king of Uruk, is believed to have reigned.Georges Roux, Ancient Iraq, page 502 Texts from the ED II period are not yet understood. Later inscriptions have been found bearing some Early Dynastic II names from the King List.
The Early Dynastic IIIa period, also known as the Fara period, is when syllabic writing began. Accounting records and an undeciphered logographic script existed before the Fara Period, but the full flow of human speech was first recorded about 2600 BC at the beginning of the Fara Period.
The Early Dynastic IIIb period is also known as the Presargonic period.
| Notable rulers of Sumer | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Ante-diluvian kings | Alulim · Dumuzid, the Shepherd · Ziusudra | 3rd Dynasty of Kish | Kubaba |
| 1st Dynasty of Kish | Etana · Enmebaragesi | 3rd Dynasty of Uruk | Lugal-Zage-Si |
| 1st Dynasty of Uruk | Enmerkar · Lugalbanda · Dumuzid, the Fisherman · Gilgamesh | Dynasty of Akkad | Sargon · (Enheduanna)* · Manishtushu · Naram-Sin · Shar-Kali-Sharri · Dudu · Shu-turul |
| 1st Dynasty of Ur | (Meskalamdug)* · Mesannepada · (Puabi)* | ||
| 2nd Dynasty of Uruk | Enshakushanna | 2nd Dynasty of Lagash | Puzer-Mama · Gudea |
| 1st Dynasty of Lagash | Ur-Nanshe · Eannatum · En-anna-tum I · Entemena · Urukagina | 5th Dynasty of Uruk | Utu-hegal |
| Dynasty of Adab | Lugal-Anne-Mundu | 3rd dynasty of Ur | Ur-Nammu · Shulgi · Amar-Sin · Shu-Sin · Ibbi-Sin |
| * Meskalamdug and Puabi, though not necessarily rulers, are famous for their grave finds; Enheduanna, not a ruler, is the earliest author known by name. | |||
After a flood occurred in Sumer, kingship is said to have resumed at Kish.
The earliest Dynastic name on the list known from other legendary sources is Etana, whom it calls "the shepherd, who ascended to heaven and consolidated all the foreign countries". He was estimated by RouxRoux, Georges (1971) "Ancient Iraq" (Penguin, Harmondsworth) to have lived approximately 3000 BC.
Among the 11 kings who followed, a number of Semitic Akkadian names are recorded, suggesting that these people made up a sizable proportion of the population of this northern city.
The earliest monarch on the list whose historical existence has been independently attested through archaeological inscription is En-me-barage-si of Kish (ca. 2700-2600 BC), said to have conquered Elam and built the temple of Enlil in Nippur.
Enmebaragesi\'s successor, Aga, is said to have fought with Gilgamesh of Uruk, the 5th king of that city. From this time, for a period Uruk seems to have had some kind of hegemony in Sumer. This illustrates a weakness of the Sumerian kinglist, as contemporaries are often placed in successive dynasties, making reconstruction difficult.
Mesh-ki-aj-gasher is listed as the first King of Uruk. He was followed by Enmerkar.Identified by David Rohl with Nimrod the Hunter, mentioned in the Bible as founding Erech The epic Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta[1] tells of his voyage by river to Aratta, a mountainous, mineral-rich country up-river from Sumer. Among the kings of Uruk who followed is Dumuzi, the Fisherman. He was followed by Lugalbanda, also known from fragmentary legends.
The most famous monarch of this dynasty was Lugalbanda\'s successor Gilgamesh, hero of the Epic of Gilgamesh — copies of which have been found as far off as Hattusas in Anatolia, Megiddo in Israel and Tell el Amarna in Egypt.
ca. 26th century BC
Meskalamdug is the first archaeologically recorded king (Lugal from Lu=man, Gal=Great) of the city of Ur. He was succeeded by his son Akalamdug, and Akalamdug by his son Mesh-Ane-pada.
Mesh-Ane-pada is the first king of Ur listed on the king list, and he is recognised as the first king of the Early Dynastic III phase (ca. 26th century BC), defeating Lugalkildu of Uruk and Mesilim of Kish. Mesh-Ane-pada thereafter assumed the title "King of Kish" for himself, a title that seems to have been used by most kings of the preeminent dynasties for some time afterward.
Mesilim of Kish achieved some kind of independence from Ur. He was also mentioned in some of the earliest monuments from Lagash that claim he arbitrated a border dispute between Lugal-sha-engur, high priest of Lagash, and the high priest of their traditional rival, the neighbouring town of Umma.
ca. 26th century BC
According to the Sumerian king list, Elam, Sumer\'s neighbor to the east, held the kingship in Sumer for a brief period, based in the city of Awan.
ca. 2500-2334 BC
ca. 25th century BC
En-hegal is recorded as the first known ruler of Lagash, being tributary to Uruk. His successor Lugal-sha-engur was similarly tributary to the first Dynasty of Ur.
Ur-Nanshe: top - creating the foundation for a shrine; bottom - presiding over its dedication (Louvre)
Ca. 2500 BC Ur-Nanshe succeeded Lugal-sha-engur as the new high priest of Lagash and achieved independence from A-annepadda[citation needed], son of Mesannepada of Ur[citation needed], making himself king. In the ruins of a building attached by him to the temple of Ningirsu, terra cotta bas reliefs of the king and his sons have been found, as well as onyx plates and lions\' heads in onyx reminiscent of Egyptian work. These were dedicated to the goddess Bau[citation needed]. One inscription states that ships of Dilmun (Bahrain) brought him wood as tribute from foreign lands. He was succeeded by his son Akurgal.
Eannatum\'s Stele of the Vultures (Louvre)
Eannatum\'s Stele of the Vultures (Louvre)
Eannatum, grandson of Ur-Nina, made himself master of the whole of the district of Sumer, together with the cities of Uruk (ruled by En-shag-kush-ana, of the King List), Ur, Nippur, Akshak, and Larsa. He also annexed the kingdom of Kish; however, it recovered its independence after his death. Umma was made tributary - a certain amount of grain being levied upon each person in it, that had to be paid into the treasury of the goddess Nina[citation needed] and the god Ningirsu.
The so-called "Stele of the Vultures," now in the Louvre, was erected as a monument of the victory of Eannatum of Lagash over Enakalle of Umma. On this, various incidents in the war are represented. In one scene, the king stands in his chariot with a curved weapon in his right hand, formed of three bars of metal bound together by rings, while his kilted followers, with helmets on their heads and lances in their hands, march behind him.
Eannatum\'s campaigns extended beyond the confines of Sumer, and he created the first, if short-lived, empire. He overran a part of Elam, took the city of Az on the Persian Gulf, and exacted tribute as far as Mari; however many of the realms he conquered were often in revolt. During his reign, temples and palaces were repaired or erected at Lagash and elsewhere; the town of Nina[citation needed] -- that probably gave its name to the later Niniveh-- was rebuilt, and canals and reservoirs were excavated.
Eannatum was succeeded by his brother, En-anna-tum I. During his rule, Umma once more asserted independence under Ur-Lumma, who attacked Lagash unsuccessfully. Ur-Lumma was replaced by a priest-king, Illi, who also attacked Lagash.
Entemena\'s Silver Vase (Louvre)
His son and successor Entemena restored the prestige of Lagash. Illi of Umma was subdued, with the help of his ally Lugal-kinishe-dudu or Lugal-ure of Uruk, successor to En-shag-kush-ana and also on the king-list. Lugal-kinishe-dudu seems to have been the prominent figure at the time, since he also claimed to rule Kish and Ur.
A silver vase dedicated by Entemena to his god is now in the Louvre. A frieze of lions devouring ibexes and deer, incised with great artistic skill, runs round the neck, while the eagle crest of Lagash adorns the globular part. The vase is a proof of the high degree of excellence to which the goldsmith\'s art had already attained. A vase of calcite, also dedicated by Entemena, has been found at Nippur.
After Entemena, a series of weak, corrupt priest-kings is attested for Lagash. The last of these, Urukagina, was known for his judicial, social, and economic reforms, and his may well be the first legal code known to history.
Following this period, the region of Mesopotamia seems to have come under the sway of a Sumerian conqueror from Adab, Lugal-Ane-mundu, ruling over Uruk, Ur and Lagash. According to inscriptions, he ruled from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean, and up to the Zagros Mountains, including Elam. However, his empire fell apart with his death. (Sumerian records also show Nin-Kasalsi as the first ruler of the city of Adab. Like the later "King" of the 3rd Dynasty of Kish, Nin-Kasalsi was a woman.)
Lugal-Ane-mundu\'s power may have been limited, however, as his reign seems to have been contemporaneous with the Third Dynasty of Kish, inaugurated by Kug-Bau or Kubaba, unique in the fact that she was the only woman ever to reign as "king". Before overthrowing the rule of En-shag-kush-ana of the 2nd Uruk Dynasty and becoming monarch, the king-list says she was a tavern-keeper.
In later centuries she was worshipped as a minor goddess, achieving important status in the Hurrian and Hittites periods, when she was identified with the Hurrian goddess Hannahannah[citation needed]. In the post-Hittite Phrygian period she was called Kubele (Latin Cybele), Great Mother of the Gods.
Akshak too achieved independence with a line of rulers extending from Puzur-Nirah, Ishu-Il, and Shu-Suen, son of Ishu-Il, before being defeated by the rulers in the Fourth Dynasty of Kish.
ca. 2359 - 2335 BC short chronology
Urukagina was overthrown and his city Lagash captured by Lugal-zage-si, the high priest of Umma. Lugal-zage-si also took Uruk and Ur, and made Uruk his capital. In a long inscription that he caused to be engraved on hundreds of stone vases dedicated to Enlil of Nippur, he boasts that his kingdom extended "from the Lower Sea (Persian Gulf), along the Tigris and Euphrates, to the Upper Sea" or Mediterranean.
His empire was finally overthrown by Sargon of Akkad, a Semite from northern Mesopotamia, who founded the first sustainable empire to survive after his death.
Victory stele of Naram-Suen (Louvre)
ca. 2334 - 2218 BC short chronology
Akkadian rulers:
| Sargon | ca. 2334 – 2279 BC | |
| Rimush | ca. 2278 – 2270 BC | younger son of Sargon |
| Man-ishtishu | ca. 2269 – 2255 BC | elder son of Sargon |
| Naram-Suen | ca. 2254 – 2218 BC | son of Man-ishtishu |
| Shar-kali-sharri | ca. 2217 – 2193 BC | son of Naram-Suen |
| Irgigi | ||
| Imi | ||
| Nanum | ||
| Elulu | ||
| Dudu | ca. 2189 – 2168 BC | |
| Shu-Durul | ca. 2168 – 2147 BC | Akkad defeated by the Gutians |
ca. 2334 – 2279 BC short chronology
ca. 2254 – 2218 BC short chronology
ca. 2147 - 2047 BC short chronology
ca. 2260 - 2110 BC
Kings of the 2nd Dynasty of Lagash:
| Ki-Ku-Id | ||
| Engilsa | ||
| Ur-A | ||
| Lugalushumgal | ||
| Puzer-Mama | ca. 2200 BC | contemporary of Shar-kali-sharri of Akkad |
| Ur-Utu | ||
| Ur-Mama | ||
| Lu-Baba | ||
| Lugula | ||
| Kaku or Kakug | ||
| Ur-Bau or Ur-baba | ca. 2093 BC - 2080 BC (short) | |
| Gudea | ca. 2080 BC - 2060 BC | son-in-law of Ur-baba |
| Ur-Ningirsu | ca. 2060 BC - 2055 BC | son of Gudea |
| Pirigme or Ugme | ca. 2055 BC - 2053 BC | |
| Ur-gar | ca. 2053 BC - 2049 BC | |
| Nammahani | ca. 2049 BC - 2046 BC | grandson of Kaku, defeated by Ur-Nammu |
ca. 2147 - 2050 BC short chronology
Following the fall of Sargon\'s Empire to the Gutians, a brief "dark ages" ensued.
ca. 2055 – 2048 BC short chronology
The Gutians were ultimately driven out by the Sumerians under Utu-hegal, the only king of this dynasty, who in turn was defeated by Ur-Nammu of Ur.
ca. 2047 - 1940 BC short chronology
Ur-Nammu of Ur defeated Utu-hegal of Uruk and founded the 3rd dynasty of Ur. Although the Sumerian language ("Emegir") was again made official, Sumerian identity was already in decline, as the population became continually more and more Semiticised.
After this \'Ur-III\' dynasty was destroyed by the Elamites in 2004 BC, a fierce rivalry developed between the city-states of Larsa, more under Elamite than Sumerian influence, and Isin, that was more Amorite (as the Semitic speakers had come to be called). The Semites ended up prevailing in Mesopotamia by the time of Hammurabi of Babylon, who founded the Babylonian Empire, and the language and name of Sumer gradually passed into the realm of antiquarian scholars (although their influence on Babylonia and all subsequent cultures was indeed great). A few historians assert that some Sumerians managed to preserve their identity in a sense, by forming the Magi, or hereditary priestly caste, noted among the later Medes.
Archaeologically, the fall of the Ur III dynasty corresponds to the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age.
| Timeline of the Ancient Near East |
|---|
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text:Warka Vase at:-3050 text:Narmer Palette from:-2620 till:-2560 color:lives shift:(25,-6) text:Great Sphinx from:-2400 till:-2350 color:lives shift:(17,-6) text:Ur-Nanshe from:-2285 till:-2250 color:lives shift:(12,-6) text:Enheduanna from:-2144 till:-2124 color:lives shift:(10,-6) text:Gudea at:-2050 text:Code of Ur-Nammu from:-1970 till:-1830 color:lives shift:(46,-6) text:Kültepe texts at:-1900 text:Linear A at:-1800 text:introduction of chariot warfare at:-1700 text:Code of Hammurabi at:-1500 text:Proto-Sinaitic alphabet at:-1457 text:Battle of Megiddo from:-1352 till:-1335 color:lives shift:(10,-6) text:Akhenaten at:-1312 text:Mursili\'s eclipse at:-1274 text:Battle of Kadesh at:-1190 text:Troy VIIa from:-1186 till:-1156 color:lives shift:(14,-6) text:Ramesses III from:-1115 till:-1076 color:lives shift:(14,-6) text:Tiglath-Pileser I at:-1050 text:Phoenician alphabet from:-884 till:-859 color:lives shift:(10,-6) text:Ashur-nasir-pal II at:-813 text:Carthage at:-750 text:Greek alphabet from:-745 till:-727 color:lives shift:(10,-6) text:Tiglath-Pileser III at:-612 shift:(-75,-6) text:Fall of Nineveh at:-586 shift:(-100,-6) text:Babylonian captivity bar:periods from:-3300 till:-3000 shift:(10,-3) color:eba text:EBA I from:-3000 till:-2700 shift:(10,-3) color:eba text:EBA II from:-2700 till:-2200 shift:(10,-3) color:eba text:EBA III from:-2200 till:-2000 shift:(10,-3) color:eba text:EBA IV from:-2000 till:-1750 shift:(10,-3) color:mba text:MBA I from:-1750 till:-1550 shift:(2,-3) color:mba text:"MBA II-III" from:-1550 till:-1400 shift:(10,-3) color:lba text:LBA I from:-1400 till:-1200 shift:(10,-3) color:lba text:LBA II from:-1200 till:-1000 shift:(10,-3) color:eia text:Iron Age I from:-1000 till:-586 shift:(10,-3) color:eia text:Iron Age II bar:egypt from:start till:-3200 shift:(2,-2) color:yellow text:Pre-, from:-3200 till:-3000 shift:(0,-2) color:yellow text:Protodynastic from:-2920 till:-2686 shift:(2,-2) color:yellow text:Early Dynastic from:-2686 till:-2183 shift:(10,-2) color:yellow text:Old Kingdom from:-2030 till:-1650 shift:(10,-2) color:yellow text:Middle Kingdom from:-1650 till:-1540 shift:(0,-2) color:yellow text:Hyksos from:-1540 till:-1077 shift:(10,-2) color:yellow text:New Kingdom from:-1070 till:end shift:(10,-2) color:yellow text:3rd Intermediate Period bar:mesopot from:-3300 till:-2900 shift:(2,-2) color:orange text:Uruk III-IV from:-2900 till:-2334 shift:(2,-2) color:orange text:Early Dynastic Sumer from:-2333 till:-2150 shift:(2,-2) color:orange text:Akkad from:-2150 till:-2050 shift:(0,-2) color:orange text:Gutian from:-2050 till:-1940 shift:(2,-2) color:orange text:Ur III from:-1894 till:-1595 shift:(2,-2) color:orange text:Old Babylonian from:-1595 till:-1155 shift:(2,-2) color:orange text:Kassites from:-1155 till:-1025 shift:(2,-2) color:orange text:Isin from:-911 till:-626 shift:(-4,-2) color:red text: from:-626 till:end shift:(0,-2) color:orange text:Kaldu bar:assyria from:-2400 till:-2240 shift:(2,-2) color:red text:Ebla from:-1900 till:-1600 shift:(2,-2) color:red text:Old Assyrian from:-1600 till:-1240 shift:(2,-2) color:red text:Hurrians from:-911 till:-612 shift:(2,4) color:red text:Neo-Assyrian bar:canaan from:-1800 till:-1600 shift:(4,-2) color:purple text:"Amorites" from:-1450 till:-1200 shift:(4,-2) color:purple text:Ugarit from:-1030 till:-587 shift:(4,-2) color:purple text:Israel and Judah bar:anatolia from:-2100 till:-1950 shift:(4,-2) color:green text:Troy IV from:-1750 till:-1550 shift:(4,-2) color:green text:Old Hittite from:-1400 till:-1160 shift:(4,-2) color:green text:New Hittite from:-1160 till:-700 shift:(4,-2) color:green text:Syro-Hittite polities, Urartu bar:mediterr from:-1900 till:-1700 shift:(2,-2) color:mediterr text:Protopalatial from:-1700 till:-1450 shift:(2,-2) color:mediterr text:Neopalatial from:-1450 till:-1100 shift:(2,-2) color:mediterr text:Mycenaean Greece from:-1100 till:-750 shift:(2,-2) color:mediterr text:Greek Dark Ages from:-750 till:end shift:(2,-2) color:mediterr text:Archaic Greece |
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